Influenza (Avian and other zoonotic)
What Is A Normal Body Temperature?
Your body's temperature comes from your body doing the work that keeps you alive, with most of your body's heat coming from your heart, brain, liver, and muscles.. Most of the time, your temperature will stay around the same level – though body temperature can change, depending on your activity level and time of day, among other things. When your body puts out a lot more or a lot less heat than usual, it's trying to tell you there's a problem.
There's a range of normal body temperatures for adults and children. Things including activity level, time of day, weather, age, and more can also impact your body temperature. A normal temperature for adults is in the range of 97 F to 99 F, and for children it is 95.9 F to 99.5 F. (Photo Credit: E+ / Getty Images)
There are several ways to measure body temperature. The best way may depend on the situation and whose body temperature is being measured.
Rectal temperature. This is the most accurate method for taking the temperature of babies and infants, especially those that are younger than 3 months old. Make sure to use a digital rectal thermometer with a short probe.
Oral temperature. You can also use a thermometer in your mouth to measure temperature. Make sure to clamp your lips together tightly and breathe through your nose.
Tympanic temperature. This is when you use a digital thermometer pointed into your ear. These thermometers are quick and easy to use, but they may not be as accurate as other methods.
Forehead temperature. You can use an electronic digital thermometer on your forehead to measure your temperature. You can also use another type of thermometer, called a noncontact infrared thermometer. Don't use plastic strip thermometers that change color when you press them against your skin, because these are the least accurate method of measuring temperature.
Armpit temperature. You can also use any digital thermometer to take the temperature in your armpit if you don't want a thermometer in your mouth, rectum, ear, or on your forehead. This is also called an axillary temperature.
Not everyone's "normal" body temperature is the same. Yours could be a whole degree different from someone else's. Your temperature doesn't stay the same all day, and it will vary throughout your lifetime, too.
A German doctor in the 19th century set the standard at 98.6 F, but more recent studies say the baseline for most people may be decreasing.
Normal range of body temperature based on age
For a typical adult, body temperature can be anywhere from 97 F to 99 F. Adults over the age of 60 tend to have a lower body temperature, compared to younger adults. Babies and children have a wider range: 95.9 F to 99.5 F (if measured with an oral thermometer) or 97.9 F to 100.4 F (if measured by a rectal thermometer).
What is the normal forehead temperature for adults?
Your temperature reading may also change based on where on your body you measure it. Underarm readings can be a degree lower than what you'd find from your mouth. Rectal temperatures usually are up to a degree higher than mouth readings. If you are using a digital or noncontact infrared thermometer on your forehead, it can be slightly lower than mouth readings. But a normal temperature using a noncontact infrared thermometer will still be in the range of 97 F to 99 F for adults.
A body temperature higher than your normal range is a fever. It's hypothermia when the body temperature dips too low. Both need to be watched.
How high is too high when it comes to your temperature? Anything above 100.4 F is considered a fever. You may feel terrible, but on the whole, a fever isn't bad for you. It's a sign your body is doing what it should when germs invade. It's fighting them off.
Fever in adults
There are different levels of severity of fevers in adults. These include:
If you're an adult with a fever of over 104 F, you should call your doctor.
If you have a fever, you might have other symptoms besides just feeling warm. These can include:
Many fevers will go away within a few days. But you should call a doctor if you have any of these symptoms with a fever:
Fever in children
Fevers in children can be tricky, and children may not be able to show that they feel uncomfortable. Signs of a fever in children can include:
Like in adults, in many cases a child's fever can be managed at home. But you should contact your child's pediatrician if your child is:
How can you bring down a fever?
If you have had a high fever for 3 days or more, it is time to contact your doctor for help.
But if you have a moderate or low fever and are uncomfortable, there are some things you can try at home to bring down a fever.
If your body loses too much heat, it can be very serious, even fatal. Hypothermia is when your body temperature goes below 95 F, and your body is losing heat faster than it can produce heat. You might think of hypothermia as something that only happens when you're exposed to extremely cold weather for a long time. But it happens indoors, too. A below-normal body temperature can also be a sign that you're sick.
Hypothermia in adults
Hypothermia is a special concern for the elderly. Older adults can struggle to keep their body temperature in a normal range if they're somewhere with intense air conditioning or there's not enough heat.
Other things can also make you more likely to get hypothermia. They include:
Whether you are indoors or outdoors, the signs of hypothermia are similar. Hypothermia causes mental confusion, so someone who is hypothermic may not be aware that they need help. Symptoms of hypothermia can include:
Hypothermia in children
Hypothermia is also particularly concerning for children. Babies may not be good at controlling their temperature. They can lose heat quickly. It's important to keep them warm. A temperature below 97 F is considered too low for babies.
Symptoms of hypothermia in babies include:
How to treat hypothermia at home
Hypothermia is a life-threatening condition. If you suspect that you or someone that you're with has hypothermia, you should call 911 right away or go to the emergency room.
While you're waiting for emergency services to arrive, there are some things that you can do at home to help someone start getting warm. These include:
Is 96 F a normal temperature for a kid?
If you're measuring with an oral thermometer, the normal range for children's temperatures is 95.9 F to 99.5 F. So 96 F would be within the normal range for a child. But for an infant, 96 F is too low. If your baby is under a year old and has a temperature below 97 F, call your pediatrician.
A lot of things can change your normal body temperature, making it higher or lower than 98.6 F. These include:
Doctors used to think that the "normal" body temperature was 98.6 F, but we now know that there is a range of normal body temperatures for adults and children. Things including activity level, time of day, weather, age, and more can also impact your body temperature. A normal temperature for adults is in the range of 97 F to 99 F, and for children it is 95.9 F to 99.5 F. Higher temperatures than these are fevers and are caused by the body fighting off an infection. Lower temperatures can lead to hypothermia, a dangerous emergency condition.
What is the normal tympanic temperature range for adults? A normal tympanic (in the ear) temperature range for adults is between 95.7 F and 100 F.
What is normal toddler temperature? The normal temperature for a toddler between the ages of 1 and 3 is 95.9 F to 99.5 F, if you're taking their temperature with an oral thermometer.
What is the normal body temperature for a newborn? The normal body temperature for a newborn is above 97 F and below 100.4 F. If your newborn falls outside of that range, take them to see a doctor right away.
Best Digital Thermometers 2024: Which? Best Buys And Expert Buying Advice
Digital thermometers are typically placed in the ear, under the tongue or use no-contact readings. They've been designed to make the process of taking a temperature quicker and less invasive than with traditional thermometers.
If you're still using an old mercury-filled stick thermometer or a strip-type forehead thermometer - which the NHS doesn't recommend - now's probably the time to find a better replacement.
Find out the different types available, how much you can expect to pay and the best place to buy one.
Compare 25 digital thermometer reviews to find out which is the best investment and which ones failed our tests
Best digital thermometers 2024Each of the thermometers recommended in the table below has aced our rigorous lab tests, which include assessments of accuracy, speed and ease of use.
Join Which? to get access to all our Best Buys and digital thermometer reviews. We've tested thermometers from brands including Boots, Braun, Kinetik Wellbeing, Lloyds Pharmacy, Tommee Tippee and more, but only the very best earn our Best Buy recommendation.
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Not found the right thermometer for you here? See all our digital thermometer reviews.
Types of digital thermometerThe type of thermometer you choose will depend on how much you want to spend and how many extra features you want.
Digital stick thermometersThis is the most common type, and a decent basic option.
Digital stick thermometers should produce accurate readings if used correctly. Avoid taking your temperature if you've eaten or drunk anything within the past 30 minutes, you've just come in from outside or finished exercising, as this might result in an inaccurate reading.
In-ear thermometers are quick and easy to use, taking just a few seconds to get a reading.
They use infrared technology to measure the temperature inside your ear. Also known as tympanic thermometers, they're designed so that they disturb babies as little as possible, even allowing parents to take a temperature reading when the baby's asleep.
As the name suggests, with no-contact thermometers you don't need to press the device against your skin or place it in your mouth. These thermometers use infrared technology to detect heat from the body.
You simply point the thermometer at the person's forehead (usually at a distance of around 5cm, but this can vary from brand to brand) and they give a reading very quickly.
Some thermometers, such as the Braun ThermoScan 7+ Connect (above), can now link with an app on your smartphone or tablet, so you can store a larger database of past readings or read up on health advice.
There are smart thermometers available from Kinsa as well.
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What not to buy: forehead strip and mercury thermometersForehead strip thermometers cost less than most, at £10 or less, and have some novelty value. You place them on your forehead and the strip changes colour to indicate temperature.
The price might be appealing, but the NHS doesn't recommend them as they measure the temperature of your skin, rather than your body. If you want a lower-priced basic option, you're better off using a digital stick thermometer to get an accurate reading from the armpit or mouth.
The use of mercury in newly manufactured thermometers has been banned in the UK since 2009. But you might still have one of these old-school thermometers lying around the house.
If you do, we'd recommend you dispose of it properly through a local hazardous waste disposal service and replace it with a safer and quicker digital model.
Digital thermometer features to look out forPrices for the most basic stick thermometers start from as little as £3.
Spend up to £15 and you'll still be in the market for a digital stick thermometer, and for between £15 and £25 you'll find several entry-level in-ear digital thermometers, many with memory functions and traffic-light systems.
You could pay as much as £90 for a high-end, no-contact digital thermometer, which is packed with most of the features listed above. The no-contact digital thermometers we've tested cost between £28 and £45, with the average price working out at £36.
Calpol and other infant paracetamol pain relief: compare prices and what's in them and find out how long they take to work
Where to buy a digital thermometerWhen buying a digital thermometer, make sure you choose a reputable seller. Check the retailer's returns policy and pay attention to customer feedback and reviews.
For more details on shopping online safely and arranging refunds for faulty products, see our advice on shopping online.
Read our digital thermometer reviews to compare all the models we've tested in our lab and find the model that best suits your needs
What's a safe temperature range for a baby or child?We spoke with Dr Donald Macgregor, a consultant paediatrician and spokesperson for the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health, for tips on thermometer best use and the causes of a high temperature in a baby or child.
He said while there can be variation with kids temperatures, the normal range for children is 35.8°C to 38°C, with it usually falling around 36.4°C. However, it's worth taking your baby's temperature when they're well a few times so you get an idea of what's normal for them.
'If your baby is under three months and has a temperature of 38°C, that's considered a fever,' Dr Macgregor says. 'In this case, we'd recommend you take your baby to a doctor, regardless of whether he or she has any other symptoms of illness.'
Any child aged three to six months with a temperature of 39°C or higher, or six months and over and with a temperature of 40°C, should be assessed by a clinician.
How to spot the first signs of a temperatureIf your baby or child seems a little under the weather, it's worth checking if he or she has a temperature. Typical signs to look out for include:
More serious signs of illness (such as sepsis) that might accompany a temperature include:
See pictures of common childhood rashes, plus information on symptoms and how infant pain relief might help
What causes a high temperature in a baby or child?A high temperature or fever is often in response to a viral or bacterial infection in the body. In fact, it's the body's way of fighting it off, which is why doctors often recommend you try to avoid giving Calpol unless your child is distressed by the fever or until after you've seen a doctor.
'High temperature and fever can also happen after immunisations, allergic reactions, inflammatory conditions and severe dehydration or sunstroke,' says Dr Macgregor. 'There's no science to suggest teething causes fever.'
What should you do if your baby or child has a temperature?If you see any of the symptoms mentioned above in your baby or child, and they have a high temperature, it's worth contacting your doctor.
'However, it's best to hold off giving any baby paracetamol such as Calpol until after the health professional has assessed them,' Dr Macgregor advises.
If you need to speak to someone outside of normal surgery hours, call your GP's out-of-hours service or NHS 111.
'Sometimes parents get so worried about their child having a fever, and seeing that as the sign of illness (when in fact it's the body fighting the illness), that they give infant paracetamol or ibuprofen when it's not needed,' Dr Macgregor says.
It's been dubbed 'fever phobia', and many expert paediatricians have warned against routinely giving Calpol and other fever-reducing medicines (known as antipyretics) unless their child is in clear distress.
'If your child is running a temperature, but generally feeling OK, they should be treated with rest and fluids,' Dr Macgregor says.
If the fever continues for more than five days, you should contact your GP for your child to be assessed again.
What to pack in a baby first aid kit - check out our essentials for minor emergencies, plus how to learn vital baby and child first aid skills
Febrile convulsionsThese are a type of fit (seizure) that can happen when a child has a high temperature, although it's not thought that the fever itself causes the convulsions. While they can be scary for parents to watch, in most cases they are not harmful to your child.
They usually last about five minutes. Your child will become stiff, their legs and arms may twitch, and they may lose consciousness and wet or soil themselves. Your child may be sleepy after the seizure.
If your child has a febrile convulsion, you should stay with them, and try to put them in the recovery position. Make a note of how long the seizure lasts. If this is the first fit they've had, or it lasts longer than five minutes, call emergency services on 999.
Calpol or other infant pain relief will have no effect on preventing febrile convulsions.
Growing Season Characteristics And Requirements In The Corn Belt
NCH-40
NCH-40 CLIMATE & WEATHER Purdue UniversityCooperative Extension ServiceWest Lafayette, IN 47907 Ralph E. Neild, University of NebraskaJames E. Newman, Purdue University Reviewers R. F. Dale, Purdue University E. A. Runge, Texas A & M University D. G. Hanway, Univ. Of Nebraska-Lincoln R. M. Castleberry, Dekalb-Pfizer Genetics, IL R. E. Carlson, Iowa State University M. W. Seeley, University of Minnesota G. 0. Benson, Iowa State University R. H. Shaw, Iowa State University R. E. Felch, Control Data Corporation, MN D. R. Hicks, University of Minnesota C. M. Sakamoto, Center for Energy & Ag Assessment, MO R. L. Nielsen, Purdue University INTRODUCTION
In the simplest terms, a crop growing season refers to that period of the year when seasonal weather is favorable for growth. In the Corn Belt, the "growing season" is often defined as the number of freeze-free days during the year beginning with the last freezing temperature in the spring and ending with the first occurrence of freezing temperatures in the autumn. This definition makes good physical sense because of its relationship to the freezing temperature for water-the most universal compound in living plants. It is also closely related to the normal corn crop growing season across the U.S, Corn Belt.
The average spring planting date within the Corn Belt is rather closely related to the average date of the last spring freeze for most areas. Adapted full-season hybrids at any location must reach maturity under normal seasonal weather Conditions, by the average first autumn freeze. In the major portion of Corn Belt, proper full-season hybrids are adapted rather closely to the average frost-free season. For the most southern areas of the Corn Belt and further south, full-season hybrids are adapted to reach maturity in about five months or 150 days. In these geographic areas, the frost- free season is much longer than the corn crop growing season; and because of this, the corn crop growing season is not determined by the freeze-free season.
Across the central Corn Belt, most commercial hybrids are adapted to mature in 130 to 150 days; in the northern portions of the Corn Belt, commercial grain hybrids are adapted to mature in four months, or about 120 days, under normal growing-season weather conditions. In fact, the northern limit of the U.S. Corn Belt, where corn is grown as a grain crop, relates rather closely to the average frost-free growing season of 120 days.
TEMPERATURE REQUIREMENTSCorn can survive brief exposures to adverse temperatures, such as temperatures ranging from near 32 F (0 C) to over 112 F (45 C). The growth limits are somewhat less, with beginning temperatures of near 41 F (5 F ) climbing to near 95 F (35 C). Optimal temperatures for growth vary between day and night, as well as over the entire growing season; for example, during daylight hours, the optimal ranges between 77 F and 91 F (25-33 C) while night temperatures range between 62 F and 74 F (17-23 C). However, the optimal average temperatures for the entire crop growing season ranges between 68 F to 73 F (20-22 C). These relationships are illustrated in Figure 1.
Corn will germinate and grow slowly at about 50 F (10 C), but the average first spring planting dates across the U.S. Usually begin when the average air temperatures reach 55 F (13 C) and soil temperature at seed depth is favorable for seedling growth. Poor germination resulting from below-normal temperatures rather than freezing temperatures is the greatest hazard of planting too early. The most common stress imposed at this time is that of cold soil temperatures. The growing point of germinating seedlings remains below the soil surface and they are not vulnerable until several days after the emergence. By this time, the probability of freezing temperatures has greatly decreased. High-temperature stress during ear formation, reproduction, and grainfill is normally detrimental to yield. Under rain-fed conditions, corn usually begins to stress when air temperatures exceed 90 F (32 C) during the tasseling-silking and grainfill stages. Data from Nebraska showed the yield of dryland corn may be reduced 1 1/2 bushel per acre for each day the temperature reaches 95 F (35 C), or higher, during this critical period.
GROWING DEGREE DAYSHistorically, the number of days from planting to harvest has been used to classify the maturity of corn hybrid; but in recent years, commercial corn hybrid maturity is often determined by growing - degree days (GDD) or heat units (Hu). Growing-degree days are systems used to classify the maturity of corn hybrids. GDD result from summation of mean daily temperature.
The GDD concept assumes that:
* There is a value or base temperature below which plants do not grow or grow very slowly.
* The rate of growth increases as temperature increases above a base temperature.
* Plant growth and development are more closely related to daily temperature mean accumulations above a base value in the absence of other limiting conditions.
A base temperature of 40 F (5 C) is commonly used for cool-season crops such as wheat, oats, and canning peas while a higher temperature of 50 F (10 C) is used for warm-season crops such as field corn, sorghum, and sweet corn. The GDD are determined by subtracting the base temperature from the daily average temperature. For example, the average daily temperature in central Iowa at Des Moines on May 1, when corn is planted, is 56 F; therefore, a 56-50 (degree representation) = 6 GDD. On July 4 when the average temperature is warmer, 74 F, there would be a 74-50 (degree representation) = 24 GDD. In terms of degree days, the rate of corn growth on July 4 would be 24 and when divided by 6, it would be four times as great as at the cooler temperature on May 1. A classification of hybrids for the central part of the Corn Belt representing days from planting to harvest and GDD is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Field Corn Hybrid Maturity Classification. Maturity Days GDD --------------------------------------- Early-season 85-100 2100-2400 Mid-season 101-130 2400-2800 Full-season 131-145 2900-3200The average mid-season commercial corn hybrid in the central Corn Belt requires about 130 days from planting to maturity, or 2700 GDD. A hybrid of this type requires about 70 days from planting to mid-silk flowering, or 1400 GDD. If planted by mid-May under normal seasonal temperatures, such a hybrid will reach black-lay maturity by mid-September. For the central Corn Belt at Lafayette, Indiana, the relationships for a mid-season hybrid growth and maturity for the central Corn Belt at Lafayette are illustrated in Figure 2.
The mean GDD values for the Corn Belt and adjacent regions are illustrated in Figure 3. Over a five-month period of May 10 to October 10, the northern boundary of corn grown for grain receives an average of 2400 GDD. The southern boundary receives an average of 3600 GDD. The GDD values in Figure 3 are compiled by the "cut-off" method.
The calculation procedure of the cut-off method assumes that the maximum sustainable corn growth rate is 86 F (30 C). This assumes that higher temperatures do not sustain faster growth rates. So, all daily maximum temperatures above 86 F (30 C) are set to 86 F (30 C) for ODD calculation purposes; and if the daily mean temperature is greater than the "base temperature" for corn of 50 F (10 C) and the daily minimum is below 50 F (10 C), then the daily minimum is set at 50 F (10 C) to calculate the ODD value on such a day.
The mean daily temperature cut-off method assumes that maize begins to grow at 100C, which is define as the "base" temperature. The maximum growth rate, sustained over a 24-hour period, is assumed to be near 300 C. Further, it is assumed that higher daily mean temperatures do not lead to faster growth rates. Therefore, the ODD value for each day is calculated as:
GDD = Tmax x Tmin - Tbase ----------- 2 where Tmax is set equal to 30 C, (86 F), when it exceeds 30C (86 F) Tmin 10 C is set at 10 C, and Tbase= 10 C. In this manner, Tmax will always be entered as 30 C or less and Tmin will always be entered as 10 C (50 F), when less than 10 C (50 F).
By assuming an average of 10 C diurnal change in temperature, this cut-off method produces a stepwise linear simulation of the maize crop temperature dependent response between 5 C and 35 C, as shown in Figure 4, the linear relationships between GDD values and daily mean temperature are as follows: 5 to 15 C, GDD = 0.5T - 2.5; 16 to 25 C, GDD = T - 10; and 26 to 35 C GDD = 0.5T + 2.5.
The effects of seasonal temperatures on the response of corn with different GDD maturity requirements at different regions from north to south through the Corn Belt are presented in Table 2. The average dates and days from planting to accumulate 2200, 2600, 3000, and 3400 GDD in southern Wisconsin, central Illinois, and southern Illinois are shown. The first planting dates for these regions are May 1, April 19, and April 1 respectively, which represents the times when normal spring daily temperatures first rises to 55 F (13 C) and becomes warm enough for planting. These dates are considered "early" planting times for their respective regions. Four additional planting times, each two weeks apart, are shown for these regions.
Comparisons of the response of a particular maturity class at different regions, or of a maturity class at different planting times within a region, can be made from the data. For example, because of cooler temperatures in the North, an early planting of May 1 in southern Wisconsin would need 123 days to accumulate 2200 GDD. Planting dates of May 15, 29, and June 12 would require 116,113, and 125 days to accumulate 2200 GDD values. In central Illinois a series of five plantings, two weeks apart, beginning when the average daily spring temperature first rises to 55 F (13 C) on April 19, would need 128, 119, 113, 112, and 124 days to accumulate 2600 GDD. For southern Illinois, the comparison would be 139,128,120,115, and 115 to accumulate 3000 GDD. When the days required for maturity begin to increase for June planting dates, it is rapidly becoming too late to plant the adapted hybrids for any given growing season heat zone of the Corn Belt. Blank cells in this table represent situations where there are not sufficient GDD for the maturity class to be adapted. Maturity dates indicated by an asterisk are situations of seasonal temperature patterns with very high freeze risks. Table 2 shows the effects of temperature changes within a growing season on the development of corn planted at different times.
The growing cycle of corn consists of vegetative, reproductive, and maturation phases, but there are more detailed stages of development within these phases. Different maturity classes require different GDD accumulations to reach these stages. The growing cycle and GDD requirement for different stages of a 2700 GDD hybrid are listed in Table 3.
Table 3. Growing Degree Day Requirements for Different Phen
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